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Brief Table of Contents Chapter 1 Classroom Assessment for Student Success Chapter 2 Why We Assess Chapter 3 What We Assess: Clear Learning Targets Chapter 4 Designing Quality Classroom Assessments Chapter 5 Selected Response Assessment Chapter 6 Written Response Assessment Chapter 7 Performance Assessment Chapter 8 Personal Communication as Assessment Chapter 9 Record Keeping: It’s More Than Paperwork Chapter 10 Students Collecting and Reflecting on Evidence of Their Learning Chapter 11 Report Card Grading: Summarizing Achievement at a Point in Time Chapter 12 Effective Communication with Conferences Appendix A Assessing Dispositions Appendix B Understanding Standardized Tests Detailed Table of Contents Preface xv Chapter 1 Classroom Assessment for Student Success 1 Chapter 1 Learning Targets 1 The Teacher’s Classroom Assessment Responsibilities 2 Gathering Accurate Information about Student Learning 4 Supporting Student Learning 5 Keys to Assessment Quality 5 Key 1: Start with a Clear Purpose 5 Key 2: Establish Clear and Appropriate Learning Targets 7 Key 3: Create High-Quality Assessments That Yield Dependable Information 7 Key 4: Communicate Results Effectively 8 An Overarching Principle: Student Involvement 8 A Classroom Example of Student-Involved Assessment 9 Understanding Motivation to Learn 10 Learning Orientation 11 Ego-Involved Orientation 12 Task-Completion Orientation 12 Goal Orientations and College and Career Readiness 12 Goal Orientations and the Connection to Assessment 14 Summary: The Importance of Sound Assessment 15 Suggested Activities 16 Chapter 2 Why We Assess 19 Chapter 2 Learning Targets 19 Formative and Summative Purposes for Assessment 20 High-Impact Formative Assessment Practices 21 How Formative and Summative Assessment Fits into a Balanced Assessment System 23 Balancing Formative and Summative Assessment in the Classroom 24 Balanced Assessment throughout the School System 25 Annual Testing 29 Assessment for Learning in the Classroom 30 Where Am I Going? 32 Where Am I Now? 32 How Can I Close the Gap? 33 The Seven Strategies as a Progression 34 Summary: Assessment for Many Purposes 37 Suggested Activities 38 Chapter 3 What We Assess: Clear Learning Targets 41 Chapter 3 Learning Targets 41 Defining Learning Targets 42 Terminology 44 Where Learning Targets Come From 45 Content Standards Developed by National Organizations and Consortia 45 Categories of Learning Targets 46 Knowledge-Level Targets 48 Reasoning-Level Targets 49 Performance Skill Targets 56 Product-Level Targets 56 Disposition Targets—the Affective Domain 58 Classifying Targets by Type 60 Deconstructing Complex Content Standards 63 Communicating Learning Targets to Students 67 1. Share the Target “As Is” 68 2. Convert the Terms in the Target to Student-Friendly Language 69 3. Share a Student-Friendly Version of a Rubric with Students 70 When to Share the Target and How to Check for Understanding 73 Summary: Clear Targets Are Essential for Sound Assessment 75 Suggested Activities 76 Chapter 4 Designing Quality Classroom Assessments 79 Chapter 4 Learning Targets 79 The Assessment Options 80 Selected Response Assessment 81 Written Response Assessment 81 Performance Assessment 82 Personal Communication 83 Selecting an Appropriate Assessment Method 83 Assessing Knowledge Targets Accurately 86 Assessing Reasoning Targets Accurately 88 Assessing Mastery of Performance Skills Accurately 91 Assessing Product Targets Accurately 92 The Assessment Development Cycle 93 The Assessment Planning Stage 95 The Assessment Development Stage 104 The Assessment Use and Refinement Stage 105 Formative Assessment Ideas for Use with Assessment Blueprints 105 Summary: A Vision of Excellence in Classroom Assessment 105 Suggested Activities 107 Chapter 5 Selected Response Assessment 111 Chapter 5 Learning Targets 111 The Myth of Objectivity 112 Considerations When Using Selected Response Assessment 113 Creating a High-Quality Selected Response Assessment 114 Step 1: Determining the Assessment Purpose 114 Step 2: Specifying the Intended Learning Targets 115 Step 3: Selecting the Appropriate Assessment Method(s) 115 Step 4: Determining the Appropriate Sample Size 117 Step 5: Develop or Select Items, Exercises, Tasks, and Scoring Procedures 118 Step 6: Review and Critique the Overall Assessment before Use 133 Steps 7 and 8: Use and Refine the Assessment 134 Using Selected Response Assessment Formatively with Students 135 Where Am I Going? 135 Where Am I Now? 136 How Can I Close the Gap? 138 Summary: Productive Selected Response Assessment 141 Suggested Activities 143 Chapter 6 Written Response Assessment 147 Chapter 6 Learning Targets 147 Considerations When Using Written Response Assessment 148 Written Response Assessment of Knowledge-Level Learning Targets 149 Written Response Assessment of Reasoning-Level Learning Targets 149 Assessing Student Writing as a Product 150 Limitations 150 Creating a High-Quality Written Response Assessment 150 Step 1: Determining the Assessment Purpose 151 Step 2: Specifying the Intended Learning Targets 151 Step 3: Selecting the Appropriate Assessment Method(s) 152 Step 4: Determining the Appropriate Sample Size 152 Step 5 Part I: Develop or Select the Items 153 Step 5 Part II: Develop or Select the Scoring Guide 158 Step 6: Review and Critique the Overall Assessment before Use 167 Steps 7 and 8: Use and Refine the Assessment 168 Using Written Response Assessment Formatively with Students 172 Where Am I Going? 172 Where Am I Now? 172 How Can I Close the Gap? 173 Summary: Tapping the Potential of Written Response Assessment 176 Suggested Activities 177 Chapter 7 Performance Assessment 181 Chapter 7 Learning Targets 181 Considerations When Using Performance Assessment 182 Performance Assessment of Knowledge-Level Targets 183 Performance Assessment of Reasoning-Level Targets 183 Performance Assessment of Performance Skill Targets 184 Performance Assessment of Product Targets 184 Limitations 184 Planning a High-Quality Performance Assessment 185 Step 1: Determining the Assessment Purpose 185 Step 2: Specifying the Intended Learning Targets 185 Step 3: Selecting the Appropriate Assessment Method(s) 186 Step 4: Determining the Appropriate Sample Size 186 Step 5 Part I: Develop or Select the Task 188 Step 6 Part I: Review and Critique the Task before Use 196 Step 5 Part II: Develop or Select the Scoring Rubric 196 Step 6 Part II: Review and Critique the Rubric before Use 213 Steps 7 and 8: Use and Refine the Assessment 217 Using Performance Assessment Formatively with Students 218 Where Am I Going? 218 Where Am I Now? 219 How Can I Close the Gap? 221 Summary: Thoughtful Development Yields High-Quality Performance Tasks and Rubrics 223 Suggested Activities 225 Chapter 8 Personal Communication as Assessment 229 Chapter 8 Learning Targets 229 Considerations When Assessing Via Personal Communication 231 Assessing Knowledge-Level Learning Targets with Personal Communication 231 Assessing Reasoning-Level Learning Targets with Personal Communication 231 Assessing Performance Skill Targets with Personal Communication 232 Assessing Product Targets with Personal Communication 232 Understanding the Quality Control Issues 233 Example of a More Challenging Fit 237 The Many Forms of Personal Communication as Assessment 238 Instructional Questions and Answers 238 Class Discussions 245 Conferences and Interviews 249 Oral Examinations 249 Journals and Logs 251 Summary: Person-to-Person Assessment 253 Suggested Activities 254 Chapter 9 Record Keeping: It’s More Than Paperwork 258 Chapter 9 Learning Targets 258 From Records to Useful Information 259 Guideline 1: Record Formative and Summative Assessment Information Separately 260 Guideline 2: Organize Entries in the Gradebook According to the Learning Target Represented 261 Standards-Based Grade Reports 264 Using Computer Programs for Grade Management 264 Level of Detail 264 Guideline 3: Keep Track of Work Habits and Social Skills Separately from Achievement Information 268 Extra Credit Work 269 Guideline 4: Record Information by Raw Score When Possible 270 Summary: Going for the Record 270 Suggested Activities 271 Chapter 10 Students Collecting and Reflecting on Evidence of Their Learning 274 Chapter 10 Learning Targets 274 Prerequisites to Successful Student Record Keeping 276 Recording Information from Assignments and Assessments 276 Writing in Learning Journals 278 Collecting Evidence in a Portfolio 281 Benefits of Portfolios 281 Misconceptions about Portfolios 281 Types of Portfolios 282 Work Sample Annotations 284 Involving Students in Selecting Portfolio Entries 285 Periodic Student Self-Reflection 287 Summary: Student-Involved Record Keeping and Reflection 289 Suggested Activities 291 Chapter 11 Report Card Grading: Summarizing Achievement at a Point in Time 294 Chapter 11 Learning Targets 294 What Is the Purpose of Grades? 295 Underlying Belief 1: The Purpose of Grades Is Also to Sort and Select 296 Underlying Belief 2: The Purpose of Grades Is Also to Motivate 297 The Sole Purpose of Grades Is to Communicate 297 Communicate about What? 299 Aptitude as a Grading Factor 300 Effort as a Grading Factor 303 Compliance as a Grading Factor 306 Communicate about Achievement Only in the Academic Grade 308 Report on Other Factors Separately 309 A Word about Grading in a Cooperative Learning Context 309 Summarizing Assessment Information 309 Step 1: Use the Most Current Information 310 Step 2: Verify Accuracy of Evidence 311 Step 3: Convert Entries to a Common Scale 311 Step 4: Weight Information as Needed 311 Step 5: Combine Information Thoughtfully 312 Converting Rubric Scores to Grades 313 Average Ratings 313 Identifying a Pattern of Ratings 314 Combining Rubric Ratings with Other Assessment Information 316 Reporting the Final Grade 317 Keep the Link to Learning Targets 317 Inform Students in Advance of Your Grading Procedures 318 Summary: Communicating with Report Card Grades 319 Suggested Activities 320 Chapter 12 Effective Communication with Conferences 324 Chapter 12 Learning Targets 324 Conference Options 325 Feedback Conferences 327 The Purpose for a Feedback Conference 327 Materials Needed 328 The Protocol for a Feedback Conference 328 Goal-Setting Conferences 330 The Purpose for a Goal-Setting Conference 330 Materials Needed 332 The Protocol for a Goal-Setting Conference 333 Achievement Conferences 335 The Purpose of an Achievement Conference 335 The Protocol for an Achievement Conference 338 Follow-Up 339 Intervention Conferences 339 The Purpose of an Intervention Conference 340 Materials Needed for an Intervention Conference 340 The Protocol for an Intervention Conference 341 Summary: Conferences as Effective Communication 342 Suggested Activities 343 Appendix A Assessing Dispositions 346 Appendix B Understanding Standardized Tests 355 References 366 Credits 368 Index 369 Table of Contents
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