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Detailed Contents Inside Front Cover Consonant Phonemes of English, Vowel Phonemes of English, Phonetic Alphabet for American English Inside Back Cover Brief Timeline for the History of the English Language List of Symbols, Linguistic Conventions, and Common Abbreviations xviii Preface to Instructors xxiii Letter to Students xxix Chapter 1 A Language like English 1 The Story of Aks 2 Language, Language Everywhere 4 The Power of Language 4 Name Calling 5 Judging by Ear 5 A Question to Discuss: What Makes Us Hear an Accent? 6 The System of Language 7 Arbitrariness and Systematicity 8 A Scholar to Know: Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913) 9 Creativity 10 Grammar 11 Linguistics 12 Human Language versus Animal Communication 13 Birds and Bees 14 Chimps and Bonobos 15 Distinctive Characteristics of Human Language 18 The Process of Language Change 20 Language Genealogies 20 A Question to Discuss: Do Languages Have Families? 23 Mechanics of Language Change 23 Progress or Decay? 24 Attitudes about Language Change 25 Special Focus: Evolution of Human Language 26 Summary 30 Suggested Reading 30 Exercises 31 Chapter 2 Language and Authority 35 Who Is in Control? 36 Language Academies 36 Language Mavens 37 A Question to Discuss: Does the SAT Know Good Grammar from Bad? 39 Defining Standard English 40 Descriptive versus Prescriptive Grammar Rules 42 Case Study One: Double Negatives 43 Case Study Two: Ain’t 43 Case Study Three: Who and Whom 44 The Status of Prescriptive Rules 45 Spoken versus Written Language 46 A Question to Discuss: Which Is More Permanent, the Written or Spoken Word? 46 Language and Society: Are We Losing Our Memories? 48 Dictionaries of English 48 The Earliest Dictionaries of English 48 The Beginnings of Modern Lexicography 49 Historical Lexicography 50 American Lexicography 51 A Question to Discuss: Should Dictionaries Ever Prescribe? 53 English Grammar, Usage, and Style 54 The Earliest Usage Books 54 Prescriptive versus Descriptive Tendencies in Grammars of English 54 Modern Approaches to English Usage 56 Special Focus: Corpus Linguistics 57 Origins of Corpus Linguistics 58 Corpus Linguistics in the Twenty-first Century 59 Summary 62 Suggested Reading 62 Exercises 63 Chapter 3 English Phonology 67 Phonetics and Phonology 68 The Anatomy of Speech 70 The International Phonetic Alphabet 72 English Consonants 73 Stops 74 Fricatives 75 Language Change at Work: Is /h/ Disappearing from English? 76 Affricates 73 A Question to Discuss: Does English Have Initial /Z/? 73 Language Change at Work: Who Drops Their g’s? 77 Nasals 77 Liquids and Glides 77 Syllabic Consonants 78 English Vowels 79 Front Vowels 79 Back Vowels 80 Central Vowels 80 Diphthongs 81 Language Change at Work: The cot/caught and pin/pen Mergers 81 Natural Classes 82 Phonemes and Allophones 82 Sample Allophones 84 Minimal Pairs 85 Phonological Rules 86 Assimilation 86 Deletion 87 Insertion 87 Metathesis 87 Language Change at Work: Is larynx Undergoing Metathesis? 88 Syllables and Phonotactic Constraints 88 Perception of Sound 89 Special Focus: History of English Spelling 92 Should English Spelling Be Reformed? 94 Summary 95 Suggested Reading 95 Exercises 96 Chapter 4 English Morphology 104 Morphology 105 Open and Closed Classes of Morphemes 106 A Question to Discuss: Exceptions to the Closedness of Closed Classes? 108 Bound and Free Morphemes 110 Language Change at Work: Bound Morphemes Becoming Free 110 Inflectional and Derivational Bound Morphemes 111 Inflectional Morphemes 111 Derivational Morphemes 112 Language Change at Work: The Origins of Inflectional -s 112 Affixes and Combining Forms 113 Morphology Trees 114 A Question to Discuss: What about Complex Words That Seem to Have Only One Morpheme? 116 Ways of Forming English Words 116 Combining 117 Shortening 118 A Question to Discuss: Is It Clipping or Backformation? 119 Language Change at Work: Alice in Wonderland and the Portmanteau 120 Blending 120 Shifting 120 Language Change at Work: Success Rates for New Words 121 Reanalysis, Eggcorns, and Folk Etymology 121 Reduplication 122 Frequency of Different Word-Formation Processes 123 Borrowing and the Multicultural Vocabulary of English 123 A Question to Discuss: What’s Wrong with amorality? 125 Special Focus: Slang and Creativity 126 Summary 128 Suggested Reading 129 Exercises 129 Chapter 5 English Syntax: The Grammar of Words 134 Syntax and Lexical Categories 135 Open-Class Lexical Categories 137 Nouns 137 Adjectives 139 Language Change at Work: Is It fish or fishes, oxen or oxes 140 A Question to Discuss: Am I Good or Well? 141 Verbs 142 A Question to Discuss: Did I Lie Down or Lay Down? 148 Adverbs 149 A Question to Discuss: If I Do Badly, Why Don’t I Run Fastly? 150 Closed-Class Lexical Categories 151 Prepositions 151 Conjunctions 152 A Question to Discuss: What Is the up in call up? 152 Pronouns 153 Complementizers 155 Language Change at Work: Himself, Hisself, Hisownself 155 Determiners 156 Auxiliary Verbs 157 Challenges to Categorization 159 The Suffix -ing 159 Noun Modifiers 160 Yes and No 160 A Question to Discuss: What Can Phonology Reveal about Modifying -ing Forms? 160 Special Focus: Descriptive Syntax and Prescriptive Rules 161 Hopefully 161 Split Infinitive 162 Sentence-Final Prepositions 162 Its/It’s 163 Singular Generic They 163 Summary 164 Suggested Reading 165 Exercises 165 Chapter 6 English Syntax: Phrases, Clauses, and Sentences 171 Generative Grammar 172 Universal Grammar 174 A Scholar to Know: Noam Chomsky (1928– ) 175 Constituents and Hierarchies 175 Constituent Hierarchies 176 Clauses and Sentences 176 Constituency Tests 177 Phrase Structure Rules 179 Form and Function 181 Clause Types 181 Basic Phrase Structure Trees 183 Complex Phrase Structure Trees 187 Adverbial Clauses 188 Relative Clauses 188 Language Change at Work: Which Is It, Which or That? 190 Complementizer Clauses 191 Reduced Subordinate Clauses 192 Infinitive Phrases 192 Gerund and Participial Phrases 193 Tense and Auxiliaries 194 A Question to Discuss: What Is the It in “It Is Raining”? 195 Transformations 195 Wh-Questions 196 Negation 196 Yes-No Questions 197 Tag Questions 198 Passive Constructions 198 A Question to Discuss: How Did This Passive Sentence Get Constructed? 199 Relative Pronoun Deletion 199 Phrasal Verb Particle Movement 200 Does Generative Grammar Succeed? 201 Special Focus: Syntax and Prescriptive Grammar 203 Sentence Fragments and Run-on Sentences 203 Colons, Semicolons, and Comma Splices 204 Dangling Participles 205 Summary 206 Suggested Reading 207 Exercises 207 Chapter 7 Semantics 214 Semantics 215 The Limits of Reference 217 The Role of Cognition 217 The Role of Linguistic Context 218 A Question to Discuss: How Do Function Words Mean? 218 The Role of Physical and Cultural Context 219 Language Change at Work: The Formation of Idioms 212 A Brief History of Theories of Reference 220 Deixis 220 Plato and Forms 221 Repairing Plato 221 From Reference to Discourse 222 From Reference to Translation 223 Componential Analysis 224 Lexical Fields 224 Hyponym to Homonym (and Other Nyms) 226 Hyponymy 226 Meronymy 227 Synonymy 228 Antonymy 228 Homonymy 229 A Question to Discuss: Does the Thesaurus Have a Bad Name? 230 Organization of the Mental Lexicon 230 Prototype Semantics 232 Lexical Prototype Semantics 232 Analogical Mapping 233 Conceptual Metaphor 233 The Intersection of Semantics, Syntax, and Discourse 234 Projection Rules 234 Thematic Roles 235 How Sentences Mean 236 Sentences and Context 236 Processes of Semantic Change 237 Generalization and Specialization 237 Metaphorical Extension 240 Euphemism and Dysphemism 240 Pejoration and Amelioration 241 Linguistic Relativity 242 Special Focus: Politically Correct Language 245 Summary 247 Suggested Reading 247 Exercises 248 Chapter 8 Spoken Discourse 251 Defining Discourse Analysis 252 Speech Act Theory: Accomplishing Things with Words 253 Scholars to Know: J. L. Austin (1911–1960) and John Searle (1932– ) 254 Components of Speech Acts 252 Direct and Indirect Speech Acts 256 Performative Speech Acts 257 Evaluating Speech Act Theory 259 The Cooperative Principle: Successfully Exchanging Information 260 Conversational Maxims 261 A Scholar to Know: Robin Tolmach Lakoff (1942-) 262 Conversational Implicature 262 A Question to Discuss: Entailment and Implicature 263 Relevance 264 Politeness and Face: Negotiating Relationships in Speaking 266 Positive and Negative Politeness and Face 266 Face-Threatening Acts 267 A Question: A Question to Discuss: How Do Compliments Work? 268 Discourse Markers: Signaling Discourse Organization and Authority 269 Function of Discourse Markers 269 Language Change at Work: fDiscourse Markers rom Beowulf to Dude 270 Types of Discourse Markers 270 Language Change at Work: Like, I Was Like, What Is Going On with the Word Like? 271 Conversation Analysis: Taking Turns and the Conversational Floor 272 Structure of Conversation 273 Turn-Taking 274 Turn-Taking Violations 275 Maintenance and Repair 276 Style Shifting: Negotiating Social Meaning 277 Indexical Meaning 277 Style and Creativity 278 Special Focus: Do Men and Women Speak Differently? 280 Early Language and Gender Research 281 Different Models for Gender Difference 282 Queer Sociolinguistics 283 Language and Identity 283 Summary 284 Suggested Reading 284 Exercises 285 Chapter 9 Stylistics 291 Stylistics 295 Systematicity and Choice 295 The World of Texts: Genres and Registers 296 Variation among Text Types 298 Which Comes First? 298 Textual Unity: Cohesion 300 Elements of Cohesion 300 Cohesion at Work 303 Telling Stories: The Structure of Narratives 303 The Components of a Narrative 305 Investigating Speakers and Perspective 307 Varieties of Perspective 308 Speech: Direct and Indirect 309 Investigating Actions 310 Types of Action 310 Action at Work 312 Investigating Word Choice 313 Diction 313 Metaphor 314 Modality 315 Language Variation at Work: Literary Forensics 316 Rhythm and Rhyme in Poetry 317 Poeticity and Its Axes 317 A Scholar to Know: Roman Jakobson (1896–1982) 318 Meter, Rhythm, and Scansion 319 Prosody and Verse Structure 320 Sound, Meaning, and Poetic Technique 321 A Question to Discuss: What Makes the Tongue Twist? 321 Language Change at Work: Hip Hop Rhymes 322 Special Focus: What Makes “Good Writing”? 323 Summary 324 Suggested Reading 325 Exercises 325 Chapter 10 Language Acquisition 339 Theories about Children’s Language Acquisition 330 Imitation versus Instinct 331 Noam Chomsky and Universal Grammar 332 Debates about Language “Hard Wiring” 333 Language and the Brain 333 Children Learning Sounds 335 Language Acquisition Tests 336 Acquisition of Phonemic Differences 337 Children Learning Words 338 Babbling and First Words 338 Language Acquisition at Work: Imitating Faces 340 Language Acquisition at Work: Deaf Children Learning ASL 342 Acquisition of Words and Word Meaning 334 A Question to Discuss: Why Do We Talk with Our Hands? 343 Aquistion of Words and Word Meaning 345 Children Learning Grammar 346 Patterns of Children’s Errors 346 Acquisition of Complex Grammatical Constructions 48 The Role of Parents in Language Acquisition 348 Features of Parentese 349 Role of Parentese 350 Language Acquisition in Special Circumstances 350 Pidgins and Creoles 350 Nicaraguan Sign Language 351 Critical Age Hypothesis 352 Critical Periods 353 A Case Study: Genie 353 Acquisition of Languages Later in Life 354 When Things Go Wrong 355 Broca’s Aphasia 355 Language Variation at Work: Verbal Slips 357 Wernicke’s Aphasia 358 Dyslexia 358 Special Focus: Children and Bilingualism 360 Children Learning Two Languages 360 Bilingual Education Programs 361 Summary 362 Suggested Reading 363 Exercises 363 Chapter 11 Language Variation 366 Dialect 367 Dialects versus Languages 369 Standard and Nonstandard Dialects 369 A Question to Discuss: Is American English a Dialect or a Language? 370 Dialectology 371 Variationist Sociolinguistics 373 Language Change at Work: Pop versus Soda 374 William Labov’s Research 376 Sociolinguistics versus Generative Grammar 376 A Scholar to Know: William Labov (1927– ) 377 Speech Communities and Communities of Practice 377 Variationist Sociolinguistic Methodologies 378 Sampling 378 Soliciting Language 379 Analyzing Results 380 Ethical Issues 382 A Question to Discuss: Should We Preserve Dialects? 383 Major Factors in Language Variation within Speech Communities 384 Age 384 Gender 384 Class 386 Race and Ethnicity 388 Social Networks 389 Effects of Language Contact 389 Dialect Contact 389 Language Contact 390 Pidgins and Creoles 390 Speaker Attitudes and Language Variation 392 A Question to Discuss: What Does “Linguistic Equality” Mean? 395 Summary 398 Suggested Reading 398 Exercises 399 Chapter 12 American Dialects 401 The Politics of American Dialects 402 Speakers Who Control Multiple Dialects 403 Judgments and Humor about Dialects 403 Dialect Diversity and National Unity 404 Language Change at Work: The Inconsistency of Language Attitudes 405 Regional Variation 406 A Sample Walk 406 Language Change at Work: Why Does Unless Mean 'in case' in Pennsylvania? 408 Defining Regions 410 The Emergence of Regional Dialects 410 Retention 411 Naturally Occurring Internal Language Change 411 Language Change at Work: Regional Food Terms 412 Language Contact 413 Coining 413 Language Change at Work: A Dragonfly by Any Other Name 414 Social Factors 414 The History of Regional Dialects in the United States 415 The Beginnings of American English 415 The Northern Dialect Region 416 The Southern Dialect Region 416 The Midland Dialect Region 417 The Western Dialect Region 418 Dialects within Dialect Regions 419 Two Case Studies of Regional Variation 421 Appalachian English 421 Language Change at Work: Jack, Will, and Jenny in the Swamp 424 California English 425 Social Variation 427 Slang and Jargon versus Dialects 427 Social Dialects 428 Two Case Studies of Social Variation 429 Chicano English 429 African American English 430 Special Focus: The Ebonics Controversy 434 A Scholar to Know: Geneva Smitherman (1940-) 437 Summary 438 Suggested Reading 438 Exercises 439 Chapter 13 History of English: Old to Early Modern English 443 Old English (449–1066): History of Its Speakers 444 When Did English Begin? 444 Which Germanic Dialect Is “Old English”? 445 Language Change at Work: How English Was Written Down 447 Where Do the Names English and England Originate? 448 Old English Lexicon 448 Latin Borrowing 449 Old Norse Borrowing 451 Native English Word Formation 451 Old English Grammar 452 The Origins of Modern English Noun Inflections 452 The Gender of Things 453 The Familiarity of Personal Pronouns 453 The Many Faces of Modifiers 454 The Origins of Some Modern English Irregular Verbs 455 Variation in Word Order 456 Middle English (1066–1476): History of Its Speakers 457 The Norman Conquest 457 A Scholar to Know: J. R. R. Tolkien the Philologist 458 The Renewal of English 458 The Emergence of a Standard 459 Middle English Dialects 460 The Middle English Lexicon 462 French Borrowing 462 Latin Borrowing 463 Other Borrowing 463 Word Formation Processes 464 Middle English Grammar 464 The Loss of Inflections and Its Effects 465 The Inflections That Survive 465 Early Modern English (1476–1776): History of Its Speakers 466 The Printing Press 466 Attitudes about English 467 The Study of English 469 A Question to Discuss: How Do We Preserve the Evidence of a Language? 470 Early Modern English Lexicon 471 Greek and Latin Borrowing 472 Romance Borrowing 472 Semantic Change in the Native Lexicon 472 Affixation 473 Early Modern English Grammar 474 Older Grammatical Retentions 474 Developments in Morphosyntax 474 Language Change at Work: The Invention of pea 475 The Fate of Final-e 475 Language Change at Work: The Great Vowel Shift 476 Looking Ahead 476 Suggested Reading 477 Exercises 478 Chapter 14 History of English: Modern and Future English 484 Modern English (1776–Present): Social Forces at Work 485 Prescription and the Standard Variety 485 The Media 486 Imperialism 488 Globalization 489 Language Change at Work: The Debated Origins of O.K. 489 Modern English: Language Change in Progress 490 Word Formation 491 Lexical Borrowing 492 Phonological Changes 492 Grammatical Changes 493 A Question to Discuss: “Hey, You Guys, Is This Grammaticalization?” 494 The Status of English in the United States 495 Language Variation at Work: The Myth of the “German Vote” in 1776 496 A Question to Discuss: Official State Languages 497 The Status of English around the World 498 The Meaning of a “Global Language” 501 English as a Global Language 494 World Englishes 503 The Future of English as a Global Language 505 What Happens after Modern English? 507 Language Change at Work: Retronymy and Reduplication 508 English and the Internet 509 Suggested Readings 513 Exercises 514 Glossary 517 Bibliography 543 Credits 557 Index 560 Table of Contents
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