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Preface ix About the Authors xiii Part I Foundations Chapter 1 Introduction: What Is Biological Anthropology? 1 Anthropology and Its Other Subfields 3 BOX 1.1 Foundation: The Subfields of Anthropology 4 The Scope of Biological Anthropology 6 Paleoanthropology 6 Skeletal Biology and Human Osteology 7 Paleopathology and Bioarchaeology 8 Forensic Anthropology 8 Primatology 9 Human Biology 9 The Roots of Modern Biological Anthropology 10 Visual Summary 12 Chapter 2 Origins of Evolutionary Thought 13 What Is Science? 15 The Early Thinkers 16 The Roots of Modern Science 16 Linnaeus and the Natural Scheme of Life 17 The Road to the Darwinian Revolution 17 The Uniformitarians: Hutton and Lyell 18 The Darwinian Revolution 19 The Galápagos 20 Refining the Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection 22 BOX 2.1 Darwin versus Wallace? 25 The Science and Creationism Question 27 BOX 2.2 What Is Intelligent Design? 28 Visual Summary 30 Part II Mechanisms of Evolution Chapter 3 Genetics: Cells and Molecules 31 The Study of Genetics 33 BOX 3.1 Cloning Controversies 34 The Cell 35 Cell Anatomy 36 DNA Structure and Function 37 DNA Structure I: The Molecular Level 37 DNA Function I: Replication 39 DNA Function II: Protein Synthesis 40 DNA Structure II: Chromosomes and Cell Division 45 Molecular Tools for Bioanthropological Research 50 Indirect and Direct Research Methods 50 PCR, Mitochondrial DNA, and Ancient DNA 51 Innovations: DNA Barcoding 54 Visual Summary 56 Chapter 4 Genetics: From Genotype to Phenotype 58 From Genotype to Phenotype 60 The ABO Blood Type System 61 Obesity: A Complex Interaction 61 Mendelian Genetics 62 Mendel’s Postulates 64 Linkage and Crossing Over 67 Mutation 67 Point Mutation and Sickle Cell Disease 67 Trinucleotide Repeat Diseases 69 Mutations: Bad, Neutral, and Good 69 X-Linked Disorders 70 Mendelian Genetics in Humans 72 Genetics beyond Mendel 72 BOX 4.1 State Fair Mendelism and the Eugenics Movement 73 Polygenic Traits, the Phenotype, and the Environment 75 Innovations: A New Genetic Era 76 Heritability and IQ Test Score Performance 77 Phenylketonuria: Illustrating Mendelian and Post-Mendelian Concepts 77 Genes and Environments 78 Visual Summary 79 Chapter 5 The Forces of Evolution and the Formation of Species 81 How Evolution Works 83 Where Does Variation Come From? 83 How Natural Selection Works 83 Other Evolutionary Processes 85 Classification and Evolution 89 Taxonomy and Speciation 89 What Is a Species? 92 Species Concepts 92 BOX 5.1 What’s in a Name? Species Concepts, Genetics, and Conservation 93 Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms 94 How Species Are Formed 94 The Tempo of Speciation 96 Adaptation 96 Is Everything Adaptive? 97 Hardy—Weinberg Equilibrium 98 Levels of Selection 99 Inclusive Fitness 100 Visual Summary 101 Chapter 6 Human Variation: Evolution, Adaptation, and Adaptability 102 Human Variation at the Individual and Group Levels 104 What Is a Population? 105 Historical Perspectives on Human Variation 106 Recording Human Variation in Past Civilizations 106 The Monogenism—Polygenism Debate 107 Race and Racism in the Twentieth Century 109 Changing Attitudes Toward Race in Anthropology 110 Deconstructing Racial Features 110 Population Genetics 112 Polymorphisms: ABO and Other Blood Type Systems 112 Gene Flow and Protein Polymorphisms 116 Polymorphisms and Phylogenetic Studies 117 Polymorphisms and Natural Selection in Human Populations 119 The Evolution of Lactose Tolerance 119 Balanced Polymorphisms: Sickle Cell and Other Conditions 121 Adaptation and Adaptability 125 Levels of Adaptability 125 BOX 6.1 Technology and Extreme Environments 126 Heat and Cold 126 Body Size and Shape 127 Living at High Altitude 129 Skin Color 130 Visual Summary 135 Part III Primates Chapter 7 The Primates 136 The Primate Radiation 138 The Extraordinary Diversity of Nonhuman Primates 139 What Exactly Is a Primate? 139 Anatomical Traits 141 Life History Traits 145 Behavioral Traits 146 A Guide to the Nonhuman Primates 147 The Strepsirhines 149 The Haplorhines 153 BOX 7.1 The Rarest of the Rare 154 The New World Monkeys 157 The Old World Monkeys 158 The Hominoids 161 BOX 7.2 The Impending Extinction of the Great Apes? 166 Primate Ecology 169 Diet 169 You Are What You Eat: Dietary and Digestive Strategies 171 Diet and Feeding Competition 171 Primate Communities 173 Visual Summary 174 Chapter 8 Primate Behavior 175 Studying Primates 177 The Evolution of Primate Social Behavior 178 Social Behavior and Reproductive Asymmetry 179 Male Reproductive Strategies 180 Female Reproductive Strategies 181 Why Are Nonhuman Primates Social? 183 The Paradox of Sociality 183 Innovations: Culture in Nonhuman Primates 184 Types of Nonhuman Primate Societies 187 BOX 8.1 The Infanticide Wars 190 BOX 8.2 Are Chimpanzees from Mars and Bonobos from Venus? 192 Visual Summary 185 Part IV The Fossil Record Chapter 9 Geology and Primate Origins 196 How to Become a Fossil 198 The Importance of Context 199 Stratigraphy 199 The Geologic Time Scale 201 How Old Is It? 204 Relative Dating Techniques 204 Calibrated Relative Dating Techniques 207 BOX 9.1 The Piltdown Hoax 208 Chronometric Dating Techniques 208 Innovations: Time in a Bottle 212 The Earth in the Cenozoic 214 Continents and Landmasses 214 The Environment in the Cenozoic 215 Climate Change and Early Primate Evolution 217 Changes in the Paleocene: The Origin of Primates 218 Why Primates? 219 Early Primates of the Eocene 219 Selective Pressures Driving the Strepsirhine—Haplorhine Split 221 Climate Change and the Origin of Monkeys and Apes 221 The First Monkeys 222 New World Monkeys 223 Old World Monkeys 224 What Favored the Origin of Anthropoids? 225 The Earliest Apes 226 Selection Pressures and the Divergence of Monkeys and Apes 228 The Monkey’s Tale: Primate Diversity in the Miocene 228 Molecular Evolution in Primates 229 A Primate Molecular Phylogeny 232 Visual Summary 234 Chapter 10 Early Hominids and Australopithecus 236 Becoming a Biped 238 Anatomical Changes 239 Constructing the Bipedal Body Plan 242 Why Bipeds? 242 The Transition to Human Behavior 245 What Made Humans Human? 245 Will You Know a Hominid When You See One? 245 BOX 10.1 A Rose by Any Other Name: Hominids versus Hominins 246 The First Hominids? 247 Sahelanthropus tchadensis (7.0—6.0 mya) 249 Orrorin tugenensis (6.0 mya) 249 Ardipithecus ramidus (4.4 mya) and Ardipithecus kadabba (5.8—5.2 mya) 250 Australopithecus and Kin 251 Australopithecus anamensis (4.2—3.9 mya) 254 Australopithecus afarensis (3.9—2.9 mya) 254 East and West African Hominids from 3.5 to 2.5 mya 256 Australopithecus africanus (3.5—<2.0 mya) 257 The Robust Australopithecines (or Paranthropines) 260 Innovations: Dikika and Development 262 Understanding the Australopithecine Radiation 265 Cohabitation 265 Tools and Intelligence 266 Ancestors and Descendants 266 Visual Summary 269 Chapter 11 Rise of the Genus Homo 271 Climate and the Evolution of Homo in the Pliocene and Pleistocene 272 Defining the Genus Homo 273 Earliest Genus Homo 273 Early Tool Use 274 Hunting and Scavenging 276 Who Was Homo erectus? 277 Anatomical Features 277 Innovations: What’s Size Got to Do with It? 282 Homo erectus versus Homo ergaster 284 Homo erectus around the World 284 African Origins 285 The First African Diaspora: Republic of Georgia 285 Dispersal into East Asia 288 The Status of Homo erectus in Europe 292 The Lifeways of Homo erectus 293 Homo erectus and the Early Stone Age 293 A Higher-Quality Diet: Homo erectus Subsistence 295 Homo erectus Life History 296 Homo erectus Leaves Africa 296 Visual Summary 298 Chapter 12 Archaic Homo sapiens and Neandertals 299 Hominid Evolution in the Mid- to Late Pleistocene 301 Defining Anatomically Modern Homo sapiens 301 Archaic Homo sapiens 302 European Archaic Homo sapiens 302 African Archaic Homo sapiens 304 Asian Archaic Homo sapiens 305 Behavior of Archaic Homo sapiens 305 Stone Tools 306 Tools from Organic Materials 307 Big-Game Hunting 307 Fire, Campsites, and Home Sites 308 The Neandertals 309 Geographic and Temporal Distribution 309 History of Neandertal Discovery 309 BOX 12.1 Neandertal Image Makeovers 311 Neandertal Anatomy and DNA: Built for the Cold 312 Growing up Neandertal 316 Health and Disease 317 Innovations: Neandertal Genes 318 Neandertal Behavior 320 Material Culture 320 Coping with Cold 322 Hunting, Subsistence, and Cannibalism 322 Burials 323 Ritual and Symbolic Behavior 325 Phylogenetic and Taxonomic Issues: An Overview 325 Visual Summary 330 Chapter 13 The Origin, Dispersal, and Bioarchaeology of Homo sapiens 331 The Emergence of Modern Humans 333 Models of Modern Human Origins 334 Replacement and Multiregional Models 334 Predictions of the Two Models 335 Anatomy and Distribution of Early Humans 335 Africa 335 Near East 337 Europe 337 Asia and Southeast Asia 338 Australia 339 Archaeology of Modern Human Origins 340 BOX 13.1 The Little People of Flores 341 Stone and Other Tools 342 Subsistence 343 Symbolism, Burial, and Art 344 Molecular Genetics and Human Origins 346 Mitochondrial DNA 346 The Y Chromosome 347 MRCAs for Nuclear Genes 348 Ancient DNA 348 Interpreting Models of Human Origins 349 Paleontology and Archaeology 349 Molecular Genetics 350 Bioarchaeology after the Origin of Modern Humans 352 Settlement of the New World and Pacific Islands 352 Biological Changes at the Origins of Agriculture and Shifts to Sedentism 354 Physical and Cultural Consequences of Colonization 355 Visual Summary 357 Part V Biology and Behavior of Modern Humans Chapter 14 Evolution of Brain and Behavior 359 Overview of the Brain 361 Issues in Hominid Brain Evolution 363 Humans Have “Large” Brains 363 Brain Size and the Fossil Record 365 Brain Reorganization 367 BOX 14.1 The Ten-Percent Myth: Evolution and Energy 368 Language: Biology and Evolution 369 Language in the Brain 369 Language in the Throat 370 Language Ability and the Fossil Record 371 Innovations: Music, the Brain, and Evolution 372 Scenarios of Language Evolution 374 The Evolution of Human Behavior 374 The Evolution of Human Behavior: Four Approaches 375 Traditional Lives in Evolutionary Ecological Perspective 376 Wealth, Reproductive Success, and Survival 376 Physiology and Ecology 377 Hunting, Gathering, and the Sexual Division of Labor 379 Sexual Selection and Human Behavior 380 Risk-Taking Behavior 381 Inbreeding Avoidance and Incest Taboos 382 Visual Summary 384 Chapter 15 Biomedical and Forensic Anthropology 385 Biomedical Anthropology and the Biocultural Perspective 387 Birth, Growth, and Aging 388 Human Childbirth 388 Patterns of Human Growth 389 Stages of Human Growth 390 The Secular Trend in Growth 392 Menarche and Menopause 393 Aging 394 Infectious Disease and Biocultural Evolution 396 Human Behavior and the Spread of Infectious Disease 396 Infectious Disease and the Evolutionary Arms Race 398 Diet and Disease 400 The Paleolithic Diet 400 Agriculture and Nutritional Deficiency 400 Agriculture and Abundance: Thrifty and Nonthrifty Genotypes 402 Forensic Anthropology, Life, Death, and the Skeleton 403 Field Recovery and Laboratory Processing 403 The Biological Profile 404 Age at Death 404 Sex 407 Ancestry 409 Height and Weight 409 Innovations: Ancestry Genetics 410 Premortem Injury and Disease 412 Perimortem and Postmortem Trauma 412 Identification and Forensic Anthropology 413 Time Since Death 414 Antemortem Records, Facial Reconstruction, and Positive IDs 415 Applications of Forensic Anthropology 415 Mass Fatalities 416 War Dead 416 War Crimes and Genocide 417 Epilogue 418 Visual Summary 419 Appendix A Primate and Human Comparative Anatomy 421 Appendix B The Hardy—Weinberg Equilibrium 426 Appendix C Metric—Imperial Conversions 428 Glossary 429 Bibliography 437 Credits 456 Index 458 Table of Contents
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